I. Introduction
In an age of blogging, podcasting, commentary, and sensational headlines, the words of the pope as successor of Saint Peter are heard more widely, and sometimes more casually, than ever before. In the past, a papal encyclical may have taken months or even years of study to comprehend its full moral weight. Today, off-the-cuff papal remarks caught on a hot microphone during an informal airplane press gathering can circle the globe in minutes. For many of the faithful, this increased availability raises pastoral and practical questions: Which papal words bind my conscience, which call for loving, religious submission, and which deserve respect without imposing obligation?[1]
This essay will explore the nature and degrees of papal teaching authority in the Roman Catholic Church, viewed through the lenses of canon law and magisterial theology. The article explains the First Vatican Council’s definition of papal infallibility, the conditions for ex cathedra definitions, and the distinctions articulated by the Second Vatican Council in Lumen gentium regarding the Pope’s ordinary magisterium. It then outlines the doctrinal notes, truths to be believed, truths to be held, and teachings requiring religious submission of intellect and will, as clarified by Pope St. John Paul II. A taxonomy of papal documents follows, from apostolic constitutions and motu proprios to encyclicals, exhortations, and informal remarks, with attention to their juridical and doctrinal weight. Finally, the essay situates this canonical precision within the broader horizon of conscience and charity: law is not opposed to love, but serves it by clarifying the form of papal authority and the moral weight it is given.
The goal in this exposition is to help readers navigate the forms by which the Roman pontiff teaches and governs without encountering either legal minimalism or undue anxiety. In this way, canon law can assist the Church’s sons and daughters in fostering mature obedience rooted in trust that the pope’s governance and teaching office are ordered to the supreme law of the Church: the salvation of souls.
II. Papal Infallibility in Doctrine and Law
At the First Vatican Council (1869–1870), the dogmatic constitution on the Church of Christ Pastor æternus offered the first formal definition of papal infallibility, even though the tradition of such infallibility had been present in the Church for centuries prior. In Pastor æternus, the Council Fathers proclaimed:
[I]t is a dogma divinely revealed that the Roman pontiff when he speaks ex cathedra, that is when in discharge of the office of pastor and doctor of all Christians, by virtue of his supreme Apostolic authority, he defines a doctrine regarding faith or morals to be held by the universal Church, by the Divine assistance promised to him in blessed Peter, is possessed of that infallibility with which the divine Redeemer willed that his Church should be endowed in defining doctrine regarding faith or morals, and that therefore such definitions of the Roman pontiff are of themselves, and not from the consent of the Church, irreformable.[2]
The Second Vatican Council (1962–1965) reinforced the notion of papal infallibility in its Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Lumen gentium, specifically in the document’s twenty-fifth paragraph. Regarding papal infallibility, Lumen gentium stated, “For then the Roman Pontiff is not pronouncing judgment as a private person, but as the supreme teacher of the universal Church, in whom the charism of infallibility of the Church itself is individually present, he is expounding or defending a doctrine of Catholic faith.”[3]
“What binds us and what does not” is a search conducted in love and respect for the Church. Canon law illustrates how the pope teaches and governs; theology shows what the pope teaches; grace enables us to receive it.
The 1983 Code of Canon Law incorporated these teachings from both the First and the Second Vatican councils in canon 749 §1, which reads “By virtue of his office, the Supreme Pontiff possesses infallibility in teaching when as the supreme pastor and teacher of all the Christian faithful, who strengthens his brothers and sisters in the faith, he proclaims by definitive act that a doctrine of faith or morals is to be held.”[4] Likewise, the 1990 Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches in its canon 597 §1 holds that “The Roman Pontiff, in virtue of his office, possesses infallible teaching authority if, as supreme pastor and teacher of all the Christian faithful who is to confirm his fellow believers in the faith, he proclaims with a definitive act that a doctrine of faith or morals is to be held.”[5]
From these definitions, four specific conditions are identified as necessary for papal infallibility to be exercised:
- The Pope, acting in his capacity as supreme pastor and teacher ex cathedra,
- Regarding a matter of faith or morals,
- Defines and proclaims by definitive act that the doctrine,
Is to be held by the universal Church.
In the history of the Catholic Church, such an exercise is actually rare. The Marian dogmas of the Immaculate Conception, as defined in the 1854 apostolic constitution Ineffabilis Deus, and the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary, as defined in the 1950 apostolic constitution Munificentissimus Deus, are the most often‑cited instances of ex cathedra infallible statements,[6] and it is interesting to note that the first infallible declaration took place before papal infallibility itself had been defined.
Outside these solemn acts, the Pope ordinarily teaches without the charism of infallibility in the strict sense, yet still possesses real authority, as does the College of Bishops when exercising their authentic Magisterium. Therefore, depending on the content and the mode of expression, teachings by the Pope or the College of Bishops may require from the faithful firm various levels of assent, which will be discussed in the next section of this essay.
III. Levels of Assent and Obedience: Credenda, Tenenda, and Obsequium
Not all truths taught by the Catholic Church possess the same gravitas, and therefore the responsibility of the faithful to believe these truths is not of the same weight. To assist the faithful in understanding the levels of significance in teaching, Saint John Paul II in 1998 issued an apostolic letter motu proprio (“by his own hand”) entitled Ad tuendam fidem (“To Protect the Faith”), which clarified three levels of doctrinal teaching and the assent required from the faithful connected to these levels.
First, there are truths to be believed as divinely revealed (de fide credenda). These truths are proposed infallibly by solemn definitions or by the ordinary and universal magisterium and require the assent of theological faith.[7] In effect, these are the non-negotiable truths that must be believed as a Catholic, such as the existence of God as Trinity, the Incarnation, the Paschal Mystery, or the examples of the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption mentioned above. To deny these divinely revealed truths is to remove yourself from communion with the Catholic Church.
Second, there are truths to be held definitively (de fide tenenda), which are doctrines necessarily connected with revelation whose denial is opposed to the faith. These require firm and definitive assent.[8] Here, the doctrine of papal infallibility itself would be included, as would the Church’s teaching on euthanasia, abortion, and the communion of saints.
Third, the authentic but non‑definitive magisterium proposes teachings that are not taught irreformably yet call for religious submission of intellect and will (religiosum voluntatis et intellectus obsequium). From this third category, the faithful owe a real, interior compliance proportionate to the nature of the teaching, its grounding in prior doctrine, and the manner and frequency with which it is proposed.[9] Mass attendance on holy days of obligation or the acceptance of papal teachings on social justice are two examples of teachings that are owed such obsequium.
This gradation safeguards both the indefectibility of the deposit of faith and the legitimate development of doctrine. It also helps pastors and laity distinguish between what is owed as faith, what is owed as definitive adherence, and what is owed as respectful, sincere submission.
IV. Forms of Papal Teaching and Their Magisterial Weight
Just as there is a gradation within doctrinal teaching, so too there is a difference in the types of papal teaching instruments, with papal communications differing not only in subject matter but also in juridical form. As the pope speaks in different ways, the faithful have a responsibility to listen in different ways, and since papal authority attaches to both content and form, it is crucial to distinguish the types of papal teaching documents.
Apostolic constitutions represent the highest‑ranked papal documents and are often used for solemn doctrinal definitions or for the promulgation of universal law. Liturgical books and the codes of canon law for both the Latin and the Eastern churches were promulgated by apostolic constitutions, and new dioceses are created by these documents. When used as teaching instruments, such as in the apostolic constitutions Ineffabilis Deus and Munificentissimus Deus discussed above, their weight corresponds to the doctrinal content expressed.
Encyclicals are pastoral letters addressed by the pope to the bishops of the world, who are then given the responsibility to distribute them to the faithful. These letters typically present authoritative teaching on matters of faith and morals and are often used by popes to address topics of greater importance in the life of the Church. Even though these address matters of faith and morals, encyclicals are not automatically infallible; rather, they generally belong to the ordinary papal magisterium. Their authority is still significant, especially when they restate consistent teaching, draw on Scripture and tradition, and are received by the episcopate worldwide.
Apostolic exhortations encourage the faithful in particular pastoral priorities, often combining teaching, guidance, and pastoral practice in an application of doctrine to daily life. Even though an apostolic exhortation lacks legislative or doctrinal authority, these documents exert significant moral and pastoral weight, especially over specific issues addressed within them.
Apostolic letters can take a number of forms. The most common, the apostolic letter issued motu proprio, is one written on the pope’s own initiative and is normally legislative, in that the motu proprio will amend existing law or establish new norms. As legislation, the motu proprio is an expression of the pope’s personal authority as Supreme Pontiff and therefore binds the Church accordingly. When the apostolic letter is used as a teaching instrument, its doctrinal authority follows the content expressed rather than the legislative form. Apostolic letters can also be used as administrative instruments addressing matters of Church discipline.
Rescripts are administrative acts granting a favor, dispensation, or interpretation in a particular case. Their binding force is juridical and typically particular, unless issued in a form that establishes general law.
Documents approved in forma specifica are occasionally used by the Roman Pontiff to make a document of the Roman Curia his own act, so the authority of such a document becomes that of the pope who approves it in that form.
Finally, homilies, audiences, Angelus addresses, interviews, and off‑the‑cuff remarks as a group do not normally constitute acts of the papal magisterium in a technical sense unless the pope clearly intends to teach authoritatively. These teachings deserve respectful attention as part of the pope’s teaching function, and these remarks often illuminate the pope’s priorities or pastoral emphases at the time. However, absent the formal markers of magisterial intent, they do not, by themselves, impose doctrinal obligation. The repetition of the same teaching across formal contexts, however, can signal an intention to teach authoritatively, although the pope would need to take further steps to make the intention clear.
V. How Can Canon Law Provide Practical Assistance?
For a general reader seeking to navigate papal words with confidence, canon law supplies several practical markers.
Universal laws bind upon promulgation (publishing), usually in the Acta Apostolicae Sedis (The Acts of the Apostolic See) or occasionally on the Vatican website, and after the vacatio legis (“vacation of the law”), or time that the law is in “suspended animation,” has expired. If a papal act changes universal discipline, such as a motu proprio revising parts of the Code of Canon Law,it is juridically binding and does not depend on whether any doctrine is also taught.[10]
The doctrinal weight of a document also depends heavily on the pope’s expressed intention within the document. When investigating the weight of a document, it is helpful to look for words such as “define,” “declare,” “to be held,” or “definitively.” Also, when the audience is broader and the language more solemn, the doctrinal weight is likely greater as well.
While looking at the document’s content, one should notice if the pope mentions continuity in teaching. Documents that use phrases like “Consistent with prior teaching…” or “As my predecessors have stated…” normally carry greater authority than isolated remarks, even if the latter is more widely reported or garners more immediate attention. The same is true with teachings that are repeated by the same pope in different contexts, such as an encyclical, allocution, or exhortation. This repetitive character is often a sign of the pope’s intention to teach authoritatively on that subject matter.
It is important here to distinguish doctrine from prudential judgments, even papal ones. Papal teaching can include applications such as social, scientific, or geopolitical assessments, and these always merit respectful consideration. The assessments must not be considered irreformable doctrine, however, because of their application in specific contexts.
Likewise, papal interpretations about specific Church law have the force of law and are promulgated in the same way as laws, but these bind the Church by virtue of the pope’s authority as supreme legislator. They are not doctrine and not papal teachings.[11]
In short, canon law can give the casual reader of papal documents a “cheat-sheet” to determine the authority of the document in question:
If the document is an apostolic constitution or an apostolic letter issued motu proprio, has been promulgated in the Acta Apostolica Sedis or posted on the Vatican website, and the vacatio legis has passed, this is a document at the highest level of authority. The document binds the Church as law (disciplinary) and may contain doctrinal definitions. It may even contain infallible statements, so long as those statements fulfill the four specific conditions mentioned above as first listed in Pastor æternus, repeated in Lumen gentium, and codified in both the Latin and Eastern codes of canon law.
If the document is an encyclical, treat it as serious papal teaching, and look for doctrinal notes, citations of prior magisterial teaching, and the scope of the teaching to determine its authority.
If the document is an apostolic exhortation, weigh its restatements of doctrine more heavily than its prudential applications.
If you are reading or watching a papal interview or have listened to his off‑the‑cuff remarks, receive them with respect, but do not treat them as binding magisterial acts. They may point to papal intention, but more is needed before the teaching contained in the comments has full weight.
When in doubt, ask: What is the pope’s manifest intention? What is the setting? How solemn is the form? How consistent is the content with prior, universal teaching?
VI. Conclusion: Conscience, Obedience, and the Charity of Truth
Throughout our discussion of papal infallibility and the power of papal teaching, the faithful readers and listeners have a role in receiving the teaching with the proper disposition and attitude connected to the weight of the teaching itself. Through this reception, Catholic obedience to the gravity of the teaching, and to the authority issuing the teaching, is not servility, but a grace‑enabled habit by which the faithful entrust themselves to the guidance Christ gives through the Successor of Peter and the bishops in communion with him. Canon law serves this obedience by marking out the road, while charity empowers the believer to walk the path. Hence, a rightly-formed conscience receives papal teaching with openness, discerns its doctrinal notes, and responds accordingly: faith in what is divinely revealed; firm assent for what is definitively held; and sincere docility for authentic, non‑definitive teachings.
Occasionally, tensions will arise when a non‑definitive teaching seems difficult to reconcile with prior statements, an understanding of theology, philosophy, or canon law, or with the facts at hand. The Church foresaw such situations and counsels that theologians and pastors engage the matter with patience, humility, and the virtue of unity, avoiding public opposition that harms communion while seeking clarification through appropriate channels. For the laity, they are encouraged to read papal words in continuity, not isolation, receiving the Holy Father’s teaching with a presumption of trust and not an air of skepticism. When uncertainties remain, the laity can seek clarification from pastors and theologians, recognizing that the pope’s magisterial authority is ordered to the salvation of souls (salus animarum), the supreme law of the Church.[12]
“What binds us and what does not” is a search conducted in love and respect for the Church. Canon law illustrates how the pope teaches and governs; theology shows what the pope teaches; grace enables us to receive it. When the Supreme Pontiff speaks to define, we believe with divine faith. When he definitively confirms truths, we adhere with firm assent. When he teaches without defining doctrine, we respond with religious submission, neither minimizing the teaching nor exaggerating the authority. And when he speaks as a pastor in informal ways, we listen with respect, charity, and common sense.
In all cases, our obedience is ultimately to Christ, who entrusted to Peter and his successors a ministry ordered to our freedom in the Way, the Truth, and the Life.
David P. Long is the Dean of the School of Professional Studies and Assistant Professor in the School of Canon Law at The Catholic University of America.
[1] Cf. Code of Canon Law, can. 212 §1–3, which refers to the duties and rights of the Christian faithful to adhere with Christian obedience to their pastors.
[2] Vatican Council I, Dogmatic Constitution on the Church of Christ Pastor æternus (July 18, 1870), chapter 4, §11.
[3] Vatican Council II, Dogmatic Constitution on the Church Lumen gentium (November 21, 1964), chapter 25.
[4]Code of Canon Law, can. 749 §1.
[5]Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches, can. 597 §1.
[6] Pope Pius IX, Ineffabilis Deus (December 8, 1854); Pope Pius XII, Apostolic Constitution Munificentissimus Deus (November 1, 1950).
[7] Cf. Code of Canon Law, can. 750 §1.
[8] Cf. Code of Canon Law, can. 750 §2.
[9] Cf. Code of Canon Law, can. 752.
[10] Cf. Code of Canon Law, cann. 7–8.
[11] Cf. Code of Canon Law, can. 16.
[12] Cf. Code of Canon Law, can. 1752.
